Tuesday, August 16, 2011

Biblical Egyptology

Biblical Egyptology
Colin Burgess

The Book of Exodus is crucial to Jewish and Christian self-understanding. It narrates the two primary acts or plans of salvation.: the exodus from Egypt and the revelation at Sinai. These events echo throughout the Hebrew Scriptures and stand at the center of OT faith. For Christians, they find their climax in the person and work of Jesus Christ. Exodus is alluded to within the OT more than any other book, and in the NT, only Psalms and Isaiah are cited more frequently. 

Exodus has been skillfully crafted and offers rich material for theological reflection through its powerful and memorable narratives. For example, Exodus 34:6-7 contains the most sublime revelation of God’s character in the OT. In the aftermath of Israel’s rebellious and idolatrous worship of the Golden Calf, God reveals himself as merciful and gracious. 

As part of the Scriptures that Christians hold as authoritative, Exodus must not only entertain and capture our imagination, but also shape our understanding of God, humanity, and the world around us. Given its canonical importance, it is not surprising that Exodus continues to be the subject of scholarly research. This essay will review five recent works that will prove useful for pastors and teachers. 

Historicity of the Exodus Account
It is the unanimous testimony of the OT that God delivered Israel from Egyptian bondage. This begs the question: Did the Exodus actually occur? 
 
Two recent studies will help students understand the issues that shape the current debate over the historicity of Exodus. First, E. Frerichs and L. Lesko have edited Exodus: The Egyptian Evidence (Eisenbrauns, 1997). This work consists of the following papers originally presented at Brown University in 1992: “The Exodus: Egyptian Analogies” by A. Malamat, “Merneptah’s Canaanite Campaign and Israel’s Origins” by F.J. Yurco, “Observations on the Sojourn of the Bene-Israel” by D.B. Redford, “Is There Any Archaeological Evidence for the Exodus?” by W.G. Dever, “Exodus and Archaeological Reality” by J. Weinstein, and “Summary and Conclusion” by W.A. Ward. 

Malamat and Yurco are sympathetic to the possibility of an exodus though not on the scale portrayed in Exodus. Malamat discusses “indirect” sources for the Exodus. Several documents shed light on the milieu in which an exodus could have occurred. For example, one extant Egyptian papyri describes the tight control that Egypt maintained over its eastern border during the late 13th century and observes that people could only leave if they possessed a special permit. Another describes the escape of two slaves and provides parallels to the Exodus story: (1) the slaves escape at night from the city of Ramesses, (2) the Egyptian military pursues, and (3) the escape route is into the Sinai wilderness. None of this proves that Israel experienced an exodus from Egypt, but the analogies add credibility to the biblical account. Malamat suggests that migrations from Egypt probably spanned centuries. The peak period under Moses should be located during the collapse of the Egyptians and Hittites in the late 13th and early 12th centuries BCE. Yurco provides a good discussion of the Merneptah stele (ca. 1207 BCE) which contains the earliest extra-biblical citation of Israel and provides the latest possible date for the settlement of Israel in Canaan. 

Redford, Dever, Weinstein, and Ward are more skeptical. Redford studies the interaction between Egypt and its neighbors and concludes that during the New Kingdom period there is no evidence of any substantial resident Syrian-Palestinian population in Egypt. Dever discusses the implications of the lack of archaeological evidence for the Exodus, wilderness wanderings, and conquest. Dever concludes that it is more plausible to read Genesis-Joshua as folktale and to explain Israel as a natural indigenous population shift within Canaan. Weinstein further highlights the lack of archaeological support for the biblical narrative and states that “were it not for the Bible, anyone looking at the Palestinian archaeological record data would conclude that whatever the origins of the Israelites, it was not Egypt” (98). Ward provides a conclusion that reiterates the tensions between the archaeological record and the Bible. 

The skepticism present in the latter essays marks a distinct change in the scholarly consensus. As recently as 1981, J. Bright wrote, “There can really be little doubt that ancestors of Israel had been slaves in Egypt and had escaped in some marvelous way. Almost no one today would question it…Although there is no direct witness in Egyptian records to Israel’s presence in Egypt, the Biblical tradition a priori demands belief: it is not the sort of tradition any people would invent!” (A History of Israel [3d ed.; Westminster, 1981] 120-21).
In Israel in Egypt: The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus Tradition (Oxford University Press, 1996), J.K. Hoffmeier provides a thorough evangelical assessment of the biblical, philological, and archaeological evidence regarding the Israelite sojourn in Egypt from the time of Joseph until the Exodus (Genesis 39—Exodus 15). He demonstrates the plausibility of the biblical record over against the skepticism of much recent scholarship. The first two chapters provide an overview of the current debate concerning the early history of Israel. He traces the discussion from the demise of the biblical depiction of a unified conquest of Canaan under Joshua to the current sociological and anthropological models that understand the rise of Israel as the culmination of a process indigenous to Canaan. Hoffmeier demonstrates that the issue turns on the scholar’s use of the biblical materials and aptly points out the shortcomings of much of current scholarship’s extreme skepticism. For example, given that the Bible contains many historical allusions regarding foreign cities and rulers that are reliable, are we really to imagine that Israelite writers knew more about other nations than they did about themselves? If the Exodus-Conquest model is a fiction, why is the biblical tradition so steadfast in its confession? Skepticism regarding Joshua’s portrayal of a conquest is also unwarranted. First, the lack of archaeological evidence of destruction may be mute because Joshua states that only three cities were destroyed. Second, scholars are often guilty of reading texts too literally rather than understanding the conquest narrative in the background of other Ancient Near Eastern military documents. Third, the issue of an essential continuity between the material culture of Israelite and Canaanite sites is related to point one—Israel moved into the cities of the defeated Canaanites (Deut 6:10-11). 
 
In the remainder of the work, Hoffmeier demonstrates that the narratives in Genesis 39—Exodus 15 are compatible with what scholars know from Egyptian history. Included are chapters on “Semites in Egypt,” “Joseph in Egypt,” “Israelites in Egypt.” “Moses and the Exodus,” “The Eastern Frontier Canal,” and “The Geography and Toponymy of the Exodus.” Hoffmeier’s method does not rely upon a source-critical reading of the text. Instead, he uses a comparative method that focuses not on a hypothetical reconstruction of the development of the Pentateuch, but on the texts themselves as they compare with Ancient Near Eastern texts. 

This book is important. It lays a solid historical foundation upon which to read the narratives of the Book of Exodus. It brings the student up to speed on current issues in Israelite historiography and, with clear argumentation built upon a wide range of evidence, it supports the reliability of the core Israelite confession, “I am the Lord your God who brought you out of Egypt” (Exod 20:1). 
 
Interpretation of the Text
Three outstanding commentaries have been published since 1987 that provide profound insights into the theological interpretation of Exodus. John I. Durham’s Exodus (Word, 1987) is avowedly evangelical. Following the standard Word commentary format, he offers a translation with notes, a discussion of critical issues, and commentary on each unit of Exodus. Durham’s over-arching concern is the explication of the central theological message of the book—“the fundamental biblical declaration that whatever else he may be, God is first of all a God at hand, a God with his people, a God who rescues, protects, guides, provides for, forgives, and disciplines the people who call him their God and who call themselves his people” (xxiii).
Durham offers helpful reviews of the historical-critical issues that have shaped the discussion of each passage, but he never allows this to blur the meaning of the final text. He is open to understanding Exodus as a composite work, but argues that it is a theological unity that has been carefully shaped by its editors.
Durham provides a superb translation of the text that closely follows the Hebrew and highlights the exegetical work upon which it is based. Updated bibliographies are included for each passage and more importantly Durham dialogues extensively with this literature in the body of his work. This provides the student with a guide to the vast secondary literature on Exodus. Some will be disappointed that Durham spends little time on issues of historicity. Without argumentation, he affirms a 13th century date for the Exodus. Also, given the current lack of consensus on the formation of the Pentateuch, it would have been helpful if Durham had related the results of his study to the debate on the overall compilation of the Pentateuch. 

Terrence Fretheim’s Exodus (John Knox, 1994) is a strong contribution to the Interpretation series. Though avoiding historical questions, Fretheim offers the reader a thorough theological interpretation of the book’s contents. He shows an appreciation for the overall literary context of the book in the exposition of individual passages and sensitivity to the interplay of story, liturgy, and law within Exodus. Throughout the work, Fretheim deals with such leading theological issues as images for God, knowledge of God, divine sovereignty and human freedom, liberation and Exodus, worship, and law and covenant. An outstanding excursus grapples with the issue of the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart. 

Fretheim’s lasting contribution may be his emphasis on the presence of Creation theology within Exodus. Previous scholars have noted parallels between Genesis 1-9 and the Tabernacle unit (Exodus 25-40) in terms of creation—fall—recreation, but Fretheim demonstrates cogently that creation themes run throughout the book. An allusion to creation is found in Exodus 1:7 where the narrator reports that in fulfillment of God’s imperative (Gen 1:28) the Israelites were “fruitful and multiplied.” Pharaoh’s genocidal intentions are not merely against Israel, but against God’s purposes for creation. God’s redemptive activity is thus cast as a response to Pharaoh’s anti-creational activities against Israel. This backdrop of creation theology serves to elevate God’s particular activity on behalf of Israel to an action with implications for all creation.
The final work for our consideration is W. Propp’s Exodus: A New Translation and Commentary (Anchor Bible; Doubleday, 1999). This first of a two-volume set covers Exodus 1-18. The massive scope of the Anchor Bible series allows for comprehensive treatment of issues related to the interpretation of Exodus. Propp provides a gold mine of information written in a clear style that makes the fruits of critical study available to his reader. Propp’s introduction explains the scope and purpose of his commentary and will be supplemented in the second volume by five appendices that will address larger historical-critical issues such as the validity of the Documentary Hypothesis and the emergence of Israel in light of contemporary archaeology. An exhaustive bibliography is provided for further study. 

The body of the commentary is devoted to discussions of the translation, text, source analysis, redaction analysis, and interpretive notes and comments for each passage. Propp’s gift is his ability to navigate through the depths of an enormous amount of secondary literature and an array of interpretive problems to focus on explaining the text itself. In the Notes sections, Propp carries on a lively debate with both ancient and modern interpreters. He considers alternate interpretations so the reader benefits from understanding other interpretations alongside Propp’s own. However, Propp does occasionally find ambiguity in the text and refuses to choose between alternatives. This commentary is not as overtly theological as the others, but it is the most comprehensive and up-to-date.
 
 
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Friday, August 12, 2011

Biblical Egyptology

                                          Doctor of Biblical Egyptology
                                                         Final Essay
Certainly the course proved to be informative and interesting. As a final essay I have endeavoured  to incorporate the general base of the course and that of research ,fact, thinking and my own views.

It is interesting to look at the times  to which this course relates, namely that of  1600-1200BC. At this period of time a tribal form of peoples existed.  Many were shepherds or nomads. It is interesting to consider  the events of the times.  This was the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Protodynastic period.Camels which we associate with Egypt, were not introduced into Egypt in quantity until 500BC. Horses which were much prized, brought in by the Hyksos during the Middle Kingdom.

In order to record commerce and administration, Egypt became the first to introduce books. The recording of all in hieroglyphs or cuneiform(wedge shaped). Hierogyphics gradually fading from use about 350 AD and cuneiform at the time of Christ. Much of our knowledge has come from archaeological finds or ancient writings.  With the writings and ancient scrolls we must of course  consider that much was written  in contex of the times. Some as fact, some as stories and some with a political agenda.
 
With the Holy Bible, we are looking at a very ancient work. In part holy for the Jews, wholly for Christians and an important text for the followers of Islam. Originally written in Hebrew. The first five called the Torah. The key books of Jewish biblical interpretation, called Midrashin, are sacred in Judaism almost as  sacred as the Torah. Interpretation has been an ongoing labour for many years and claims that the Bible is interpreted literally by some and others suggest it speaks in metaphors which allows some flexibility in doctrine.
 
There are writers of which we have learned much.Josephus,  born 37/38AD was a Greek historian and Jewish priest, also a defender of the Jewish religion and culture. We can  also remember the great contribution by Herodotus 5BC, thought of as the father of history. An important historian to those researching Ancient Egypt was Manetho circa 3rd. cent BC. Manetho, was a priest living in the early Ptolemaic period, his works include Aegyptiaca (A History of Egypt.)
 
An interesting point to mention is that the Egyptians were accomplished artists and builders. It is also interesting that they  either shunned perspective or simply did not understand it. It may be that it was to show greater detail in their artwork as can be seen in tableware seemingly to hover above tables etc.  Over the years there has been greater accuracy in dating artefacts found on sites being excavated. Of these radio carbon methods and isotope analysis have been used. MRI scanning of course has limited uses as hydrogen is required in the object being scanned.

Egyptian deities played a large part in the spread to other cultures in the region. The Egyptian worship of animals much to the distain of the  Graeco/Romans. However, the Egyptians turned animal worship into a symbol of national identity.

Late period religion to be assimilated into the Graeco/Roman world were deities such as Isis and Serapis, although other deities became well known   outside of Egypt. Among the others were Apis, Horus and Anubis.  It is known that various Egyptian cultures and deities were spread by Egyptian immigrants and others who had lived in Egypt.
 
A most popular divinity during the late period was Isis. It is thought that Isis was connected to the Royal throne and mistress of the house of life.  With all of the Egyptian deities there is an interrelationship, Isis with Horus, again an important god. An early royal god, Apis the sacred bull and various others, all of which are indicated in Egyptian hieroglyphics.

The Egyptian culture was in in contex of the times, quite advanced in relation to the Greek and Roman cultures. During the later era the practice of medicine was thought to be mainly of incantations to the gods and what would be  considered today as witchcraft and temple medicine. Evidence has indicated a knowledge of chemical medicine, probably not always effective.

Disease was a concern in Ancient times, certainly tuberculosis,  leprosy and malaria.

From earliest times survival has been to the forefront of mans thinking, Whether physical survival or that of the soul and eternal life. This is shown  In Egyptian culture.  Survival, whether of a society or that of the individual  must have been to the forefront of Moses mind  leading to the Exodus.

Conclusion.
Moses is significant in various religions including Christianity and Islam. Moses is an Egyptian name (meaning One Who Is Born.) Certainly there are many questions to be answered and with each story of the Exodus

there is usually a scientific fact or reason. For instance in parting of the Red Sea (Ex. 14;21), The Ten Plagues and The Pillars of Cloud and  Fire (Ex.13;21). In respect of my own thinking and research reading, there are indications that Moses did exist and there was an Exodus but very much more is needed to tip the scales.

This essay was an attempt to give an overview and insight into the Ancient Egyptian era and that of Moses and Exodus. The development From the Predynastic period rising to a cultured society. Much of the culture passing on to Greek and Roman societies.

E.John Tucker       2011 



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Tuesday, August 2, 2011

Biblical Egyptology

Dr. of Biblical Egyptology
New Discoveries Lead to New Theories
Rev. Margie B


This essay is devoted to Sir Laurence Gardner (17 May 1943 – 12 August 2010)
My final essay will further explore lesson 16 in staying current with new discoveries.

My approach to writing an essay about this course will be a little different than most students. I believe that truth is stranger than fiction; and religious history, for me, is best approached like putting the pieces of a puzzle back together - the pieces being fragments of knowledge lost and found. These pieces are a mixture of conjecture and truth. To put the puzzle back together is to find a picture that shows that there is truth in myth, and unexpected wisdom in what is often viewed as mere quaint Biblical stories.

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Adam's apple is so named because a piece of the biblical forbidden fruit is supposed to have stuck in his throat… Perhaps this is why the Forbidden Truth so often appears 'chewed up', transformed into metaphor, humour, satire, slang (or dream and myth, of course). -- Thomas Szasz

Staying current with new discoveries and theories requires me to view the story of the Exodus and other related texts in abstract fragments that correspond to certain historical events and scientific phenomena. The purpose of this essay is not to prove any holy book OR academic volume as "wrong," but to explore the provocative possibilities of how Moses can be placed into context of both conventional knowledge of history and unconventional theory. Within this essay is contained both independent scholarship and theory based upon it; which should not be confused with undeniable fact or even religious "truth."

This is also how I approach comparing religions of closely related cultures searching for deeper spiritual concepts - notably for this essay, the ancient near east Hurrians, the Mediterranean Cretans, and the north African Egyptians and how they relate to who the ancient Hebrews might have been.


Triangulating the Origins of the Hebrews


The Bible, and the culture of the ancient Hebrews, appears to be influenced from several major near East cultures of the time. One can cross reference several stories from the Old Testament with Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and even ancient Greek beliefs. How did the Bible come to contain several different stories obviously influenced from several different cultures? I think the answer is in the Hyksos - an ethnic group that has a long history of getting around the world of the ancient near east.

I believe that before the Bible was written, the Hebrews were a part of the Hyksos, a widespread and loosely related ethnic culture; often at odds not only with the larger cultures they dwelt among but also at odds with their kin as well. It's my opinion that to view any ancient ethnic group as a static, cohesive whole with no miscommunication or disagreement among the people is a naive and simplistic way to stereotype cultures we don't understand. Especially ethnic cultures like the Hebrews who were nomadic, loosely related groups that are influenced by the larger cultures around them. I believe that the battles written about in the Bible are cultural wars meant to bring the variances of their people together under one way of life and one religion.

The Hyksos are known in Egypt as the "foreign rulers;" appeared in the Eleventh dynasty of Egypt, were called the "Shepherd Kings" and were of non-Egyptian origin. There are many theories about their ethnic identity, the most convincing to me is that they were the ancient Levantines who would eventually come to be known in history as the Hebrews. The Hyksos had Canaanite names, as seen in those which contain the names of Semitic deities such as Anath or Ba'al. They introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the composite bow and the horse-drawn chariot. The people are shown wearing the cloaks of many colors associated with the mercenary Mitanni bowmen and cavalry (ha ibrw) of Northern Canaan, Aram, Kadesh, Sidon and Tyre. The Hyksos Fifteenth Dynasty rulers established their capital and seat of government at Memphis and their summer residence at Avaris. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hyksos)

The Hyksos, even after being expelled by Ahmose I, continued to play a strong role in Egypt long after their departure. This is evidenced by Ramesses I having hereditary states in the vicinity of Avaris; as well as Ramesses II who during his reign wholly lacked the anti-Hyksos invectives. Other notable evidence includes moving his capital city back to Avaris and re-named it after himself as Pi Ramesses; promotion of Asiatics to positions of prominence within the civil administration; celebrated the 400th anniversary of the worship of Sutekh (Set, the patron god of the Hyksos) in honor of his father Seti I; and even adopting a Semitic name for one of his favorite daughters Bintanath (meaning daughter of the goddess Anath).

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Jacobivici suggests that the Hebrews and the Hyksos were one and the same, a thesis he supports with Egyptian style signet rings uncovered in the Hyksos capital of Avaris that read "Yakov/Yakub" similar to the Hebrew name of the Biblical patriarch Jacob (Ya'acov). -- Exodus Decoded

The Greeks would eventually identify the Hyksos within their own mythology of the expulsion of Belus (Baal, the major Cannanite god) and the daughters of Danaus (or Tribe of Danaus - or Biblically, the Tribe of Dan). This is only the beginning of the Hyksos connection with ancient Greeks. Danaus (represented as Hyksos) had a twin brother named Aegyptus (represented as Egypt); and when Aegyptus demanded that his sons marry Danaus' fifty daughters, Danaus built the first ship that ever was and fled to Argos. Danaus is descended from Io, who was turned into a heifer and pursued by Hera until she found asylum in Egypt.

Argos was ruled by King Pelasgus, which is an eponym for the indigenous inhabitants of Greece (perhaps Eteocretans?). Through careful reading we find that this is a political story that suggests that the Pelasgian kingship in Argos was overcome by seafarers out of Egypt whose leaders then intermarried with the local dynasty. We can compare this with the enigmatic Sea Peoples who brought about the collapse of several empires - the Hittite, Mitanni, and the Myceneans.

I feel that the ship Argo is connected to this story, even though the legend of Jason and the Argonauts says the ship was named after it's maker, Argus. Jason and the Argonauts also sailed to Minoan Crete, where the ship was attacked by Talon - a giant bronze golem-like entity (robot? More on ancient technology later) that could only be taken down by pulling a pin out of his leg and draining the oil. This is only one of many examples of technology the Minoans had, especially in context that the tale of Atlantis applies to Minoan Crete; and relates to popular theories that the eruption at Santorini could explain not only the story of Atlantis, but the story of the Exodus as well.

There is no mistake that there is a strong connection between Minoan Crete, Egypt, and the Hyksos. The Phaistos Disk bears strong resemblance to the Egyptian game Mehen, these games were a symbolic journey through the underworld. Cretan hieroglyphics can be compared to Egyptian religious symbolism. Minoan bull leaping paintings have been found in Avaris, the Hyksos capital during their occupation of Egypt. Phillip Coopens (http://www.philipcoppens.com/crete_dead.html) proposes that Minoan Crete was the Egyptian Island of the Dead.

Phillip Coppens contributes;

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"In Knossos, an alabaster lid with the name of the Hyksos king Khyan has been found." And "During the Middle Kingdom (1500 BC), the dead in Egypt were buried in valleys – the same practice was adhered to in Crete, with one of the more famous Valley of the Dead behind the Palace of Kato Zakros. Namewise, Zakros is similar to Saqqara and Sokar, an important necropolis and god of the dead in ancient Egypt. Interestingly, the ancient Egyptians argued that the dead went to live on an island in the West. Crete is an island in the west. Furthermore, the concentration of Minoan civilisation is in Eastern Crete – the part closest to Egypt."


The bull is a sacred animal in both Minoan Crete and Egypt. There may even be evidence in the Bible of references to bull leaping: (http://www.lectio.unibe.ch/04_2/PDF/guillaume_blockman.pdf).

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"By my God, I bull leap (Psalm 18:30 // 2 Samuel 22:30).

In comparison to the Stiersprungszenen of the Ägais, Syria, Anatolia and Egypt the word rw * would have to be translated in the psalm 18.30 as well as in 2Samuel 20.30 not with "wall" simply separate with "bull". This also counts to all the other passages in the Bible in which the word rw * seems like in genesis 49:22; psalm 92:12. Psalm 18 should be counted unambiguously to the Stiersprungszenen.

Psalm 18:30 and its parallel in 2 Samuel 22:30 are considered obscure and exegetes have performed acrobatics over them. The general trend is to put the two parts of the verse in synonymous parallel and change dwdg into rwdg "wall" in light of rw# "wall" at the end of the verse."


Also in the Bible are strong parallels between the god of Abraham and Zeus. Not only did the ancient Levantines worship a god named Baal, Baal was also represented as a bull. The Greeks used Baal and Bel as interchangeable (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bel_%28mythology%29), and referred to Zeus as Zeus Belos, or Jupiter Belus (Latinized). The connection becomes clearer when Eusebius of Caesarea (Praeparatio Evangelica 9.18) cites Artabanus as stating in his Jewish History that Artabanus found in anonymous works that giants who had been dwelling in Babylonia were destroyed by the gods for impiety (reference to the Flood of Noah), but one of them named Belus escaped and settled in Babylon and lived in the tower which he built and named the Tower of Belus (reference to the Tower of Babel).

Greek Zeus was born on Crete, and was fed milk and honey by Melissa. This could very well be the origin of the reference to the promised land "flowing with milk and honey." The god of Abraham punished the world with a flood for the sin of cannibalism, assumed to have happened after angels lay with human women and created giants who resorted to eating humans after the food supply ran out. Zeus becomes very angry with men and decides to destroy them as revenge for their impieties (Tripp 608). His intention is to destroy all of mankind. However, Prometheus, who tells his son, Deucalion, to build an ark so Deucalion and his wife could escape Zeus wrath, thwarts Zeus attempt. Zeus also shares some parallels with Jesus and Moses, as he was hidden away soon after he was born to escape certain death. The Bible relates a story of how a woman brings death into the world, likewise the Greeks related the story of Pandora, who was also tempted to open the box where from all ills of the world escaped except hope. Even the creation myths of the Bible and the Greeks begin with a void.

And lastly, there's the ancient relic of the Ark of the Covenant that resembles the Minoan Tripartate Shrines.



Ancient Technology


The subject of ancient technology alone is controversial; add a well known and well liked religious figure like Moses and the complications only multiply. When most people think of ancient technology; they think of the wheel, plough, or the sword. These are fine examples of how humanity has developed the ability to make tools; however, the examples I think of are a lot more sophisticated and contain greater possibility to reconsider our knowledge of the quality of life in the ancient world. Such inventions like the Anikythera mechanism, used for astrological purposes; and the Baghdad Battery, used for electroplating are hard evidence that ancient people were not without the ability and capability to create the technology we have today.

There are other examples of technology, however, they rely on myth, religious testament, and speculation rather than hard evidence. Such examples include Vimana flying machines, the Dendera light bulbs, and the ancient accounts of disaster that resemble nuclear fallout.

The Bible contains possible examples of ancient technology and possibly even unidentified flying objects. The one form of technology that the Egyptian and the Hebrews had in common was known as "What is it?" in both cultures.

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It is explained by Flavius Josephus in his 1st-century Antiquities of the Jews that the term 'manna' was actually a question, meaning, What is it? - and the book of Exodus confirms this, stating: "They called it manna because they knew not what it was". Laurence Gardner (http://graal.co.uk/whitepowdergold.html)

The Biblical description (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manna#Biblical_description) of manna is that it appeared like dew in the morning six days out of the week. The sixth day the Hebrews were to gather enough to observe the Sabbath. Exodus adds that manna was comparable to hoarfrost in size, similarly had to be collected before it was melted by the heat of the sun, and was white like coriander seed in color. Numbers describes it as having the appearance of bdellium, adding that the Israelites ground it and pounded it into cakes, which were then baked, resulting in something that tasted like cakes baked with oil. Exodus states that raw manna tasted like wafers that had been made with honey.

The etymology of manna could be as simple as meaning food, or even plant lice - the honeydew harvested by aphids that evaporates quickly into a sticky solid that is a good source of carbohydrates.

Manna could even be something as simple as algae. George Sassoon, in the book "The Manna Machine," presents Othiq Yomin in the Zohar not merely as a visage of the god of Abraham known as the Ancient of Days, but as a machine that produced algae the Hebrews could have survived on while wandering in the wilderness. Algae may seem like a primitive solution to a fulfill base necessity of food, but scientists today are rediscovering it as an integral part of sustainable environmental technology. Trapping carbon dioxide and using it to grow algae not only helps the atmosphere, but can be refined to make biodegradable plastic, ethanol fuel for cars, and feed for farm animals.

But the question remains - "What is it?" And it is this question that places it in both Egypt and Moses. Is there a simple explanation or is manna something more? A part of technology that we haven't been able to unlock until the twenty first century?

David Hudson (http://www.asc-alchemy.com/hudson.html), while doing an analysis of natural resources in the area where he was farming, would come to be known as the re-discoverer of white powder gold, known to the Mesopotamians as 'shem-an-na' (highward fire-stone), the Egyptians as Mfkzt and shewbread, the Hebrews as Manna, and the alchemists as the Philosopher's stone.


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"I am purified of all imperfections. What is it? I ascend like the golden hawk of Horus. What is it? I pass by the immortals without dying. What is it? I come before my father in Heaven. What is it?" - Papyrus of Ani

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"Our Stone is nothing but gold digested to the highest degree of purity and subtle fixation. It is called a stone by virtue of its fixed nature; it resists the action of fire as successfully as any stone. In species it is gold, more pure than the purest; it is fixed and incombustible like a stone, but its appearance is that of a very fine powder". - Eirenaeus Philalethes, Secrets Revealed


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The uses of ORMEs (orbitally re-arranged mono-atomic elements) reported is varied and miraculous. When it is heated it has anti-gravity affects and appears to disappear and reappear when cooled. When it disappeared, you can try to stir it with a spoon but when it reappears it's like the spoon never touched it. Which means, it went somewhere while it was being heated. The Egyptians believed that the pharaohs, after death, moved on to the Field of Mfkzt, the realm of the blessed. Could this be where the gold "went" to when heated? Is it only a coincidence that the phrase "What is it" also meant "where is it?" in Egyptian hieroglyphs?

The substance was also found to be a natural superconductor with no magnetic field, repelling both magnetic poles, while having the ability to levitate and store any amount of light and energy within itself. Because gravity determines space and time, it was concluded by Hal Puthoff that any substance that any material that were capable of bending space and time be classified as "exotic matter." Miguel Alcubierre Moya confirms this exotic matter could be used to travel beyond the speed of light, and outside of time and space as we know it.

In 1995, the magazine Scientific American published a story called "Electric Genes" reporting that single ruthenium atoms are placed at each end of a short strand of DNA, the strand becomes 10,000 times more conductive; therefore making it a superconductor. Application of platinum metal compounds to DNA relaxes the strands and they correct themselves. Not by killing any cells, but by rebuilding them correctly.

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The magical powder of projection was manufactured by the priestly Master Craftsmen of the temples (the Guardians of the House of Gold) for the express purpose of deifying the kings - and it re-emerges today as the primary new substance in fields ranging from cancer treatment to stealth aircraft. It will also provide the essential 'exotic matter' required for warp drive space travel in hitherto insurmountable dimensions of space-time. - Laurence Gardner

How this relates to certain myths like the Golden Fleece, and religious leaders like Moses is ground breaking to better understanding the technological feats of the ancient world. This reinterprets why Moses fed the golden calf to the Hebrews - obviously you cannot "burn" gold, but you can break it down to monoatomic form and consume it in water just like Exodus describes. He didn't force them to drink out of punishment, he was showing them that gold has a much more divine use than to form and worship idols with it! He was giving them the gift of health and longevity; as well as feeding their "light bodies" like Egyptians did.

Hebrews 9:4 states that the ark of the covenant contained "the golden pot that had manna" and Aaron's rod that had budded with power. If the Ark of the Covenant had a technological use, the most logical would be that it was an electrical conductor. Could Aaron's "rod" be a nuclear fuel rod? Could this explain why the Philistines returned the ark after only seven months, because they became overcome with skin tumors and boils? Could Manetho's account of Osarseph, who changed his name to Moses; and his followers being "lepers" be explained skin lesions from radiation poisoning?

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Moses depicted above, and in various illustrations, show him with horns. This characteristic is associated with radiation exposure. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutaneous_horn)

But where did it come from? Egypt? The Levant? The Bible isn't the only place we can find stories that seem to describe ancient atomic radiation. There are stories and examples that can be found around the world relating to ancient atomic capabilities. (http://www.s8int.com/atomic1.html)



Conclusion


As we move forward into a more advanced, brighter future I feel that new discoveries in science and technology in conjunction with archeology will give us a broader and deeper perspective about Moses. Staying current with new discoveries, both scientific and archaeological will give the lifelong student of Biblical Egyptology the tools they need to form independent new theories about the nature of the cultures that eventually penned their sacred books.

I feel that the study of ancient technology will open a new door of wonder and respect for our collective ancestors. They may not have been the backward thinking primitives many modern people assume them to be. Having faith may not be a great obstacle to scientific and technological advancements after all. Perhaps, faith in the divine is the catalyst of human creation that drives us to become better than we are. And that's the ultimate message of all holy books that exist today.

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